Chinas Cultural Revolution: Reforms in the Education System

Chinas Cultural Revolution: Reforms in the Education System The period of the Cultural Revolution in China (1966-1969) witnessed a massive effort by the Maoist leadership to engineer the socialist transformation of Chinese society, one of the area most radically affected by the Cultural Revolution was the Chinese educational system. The Great Leap Forward has brought about much economic instability and lack of agricultural production, leading to the great famine. The goals and policies imposed by the government during the Cultural Revolution greatly decentralized the educational system and shifted focus from an industrial intensive production to an agricultural production. Although many rural schools continued to function throughout this period, formal education virtually ceased in the urban areas. In this paper, we will first take a look at the three main objectives in the educational reforms. With this general background description of the program, we hope to explain some of the goals that the Communist partied hoped to achieve. The second section of this paper will discuss the means that China employed to carry out the three main objectives, analyzing the decentralized manner in the implementation process and the structural impact it had on the educational system. Finally, we will evaluate the repercussion and critiques these reforms had on students and the society as a whole. Educational Reforms The Cultural Revolution had three basic objectives in reforming the educational system. In terms of the content of education, the first objective was to intensify ideological education so as to raise the political consciousness of the students. The second objective was to integrate theory and practice in the educational process in order to make education more responsive to the immediate production needs of the country. In terms of the scope of the educational system, the third objective was to popularize education, especially in the rural areas of China.[1] Prior to the Cultural Revolution, it seems that there was a tendency in Chinese education to emphasize technological and professional training often at the expense of the socialist revolution as envisioned by Chairman Mao. In 1956, with the exception of the third year of senior middle school in which a section of the constitution class was held each week, it was reported that political classes were entirely cancelled. This trend was further reinforced after the Great Leap Forward when educational policy emphasized more study and less work and politics. This general educational policy seems to have led to the consolidation of an elite technocracy drawn largely from the educated bourgeois elements of the past. Thus, the most important goal of educational reform in the Cultural Revolution was to mobilize the students and raise to a higher level their awareness of class contradictions still existing in Chinese society. As Mao made clear, all work in school is for changing the thinking of the student.[2] This educational objective was part of the massive effort of the Cultural Revolution as a whole to revitalize the commitment of the country to the socialist transformation of society. The economic objectives of the educational reforms of the Cultural Revolution should be seen within the context of the overall strategy for economic development. The emphasis on integrating theory with practice, or education with production, was not new in itself. The Ministry of Education stated explicitly in 1950 that the purpose of institutions of higher learning in the Peoples Republic of China is to train high level specialists for national reconstruction in accordance with the principles of the Cultural and Educational policy included in the Common Program of the Peoples Political Consultative Conference of China, and using a method which combines theory and practice. These specialists will have advanced standards of culture, will master modern science and technology, and will have total dedication to serving the people.[3] However, the way in which theory was linked to practice was quite different from that which Mao had in mind for the Cultural Revolution. And the problem her e was not simply one of implementation but of basically different concepts of economic development. From 1949 to 1958, Chinas strategy for economic development essentially followed that of the Soviet model, which stressed the growth of heavy industry at the expense of light industry and agriculture. As bottlenecks began to form, China began searching for alternative developmental strategies. Thus, the Great Leap Forward was an attempt to mobilize the masses on a large and intensive scale to break the bottlenecks in the economy. While this strategy as a whole failed, it marked the point at which China changed from its previous strategy to one placing relatively more emphasis on rural development. This change in developmental strategy brought a basic change in the definition of what practice constituted in the educational process. In one case, it meant working in the industrial sector primarily in a technological capacity, while in the other, it meant working in the fields to increase rural production. Thus, in the former case, linking theory and practice meant training more highly s killed specialists to advance the technology for Chinas heavy industry, while in the latter, it meant training less-highly skilled generalists in less time to meet the local production needs of the rural sector. Thus, the economic objectives of the educational reforms were oriented primarily to the development of agriculture and light industry. Up until 1966, educational opportunities, particularly at the higher levels, remained unduly concentrated in the big cities. The rural areas, despite some improvements since 1949, did not benefit from educational expansion to nearly the same degree as the urban areas.[4] In fact, according to a Russian source, after initial success at popularization of educational opportunities between 1950 and 1958, the number of students at all levels of education decreased markedly from 1960 to 1965. It was also said that Liu Shaoqi admitted that in the 1965-66 school year approximately 30% of the children in China were not covered by a system of primary education.[5] This bleak picture was partially confirmed by the Peoples Daily report that in 1965, 30 million school-aged children were not in school, most of them being rural children.[6] Thus, one of the major objectives of the educational reforms was to correct this situation by increasing the number of schools in the rural areas and initiating a large scale recruitment of peasants and workers into the existing educational system. Means of the Reforms The implementation of educational reforms was carried out via a decentralized process, as most schools were placed under local management. In fact, it was reported in 1973 that each school had its own Revolution in Education Committee responsible not only for implementing reforms but also for part of the planning process within its own institution.[7] So it would seem that local experimentation within the general framework of the new educational policies was encouraged. Experimentation was seen as necessary primarily because of the emphasis on adopting flexible methods to meet the diverse needs of different schools and regions. We will identify below the major guidelines regarding the implementation of the educational reforms, as well as describe some of the different ways the reforms were implemented. In order to elevate the political consciousness of the students, the curriculum was heavily stocked with political education courses. The major texts used were drawn from the works of Mao. Aside from increasing the number of political course, other courses also drew upon Maos thoughts to explain various approaches to the analysis of whatever phenomenon was involved.[8] This reliance on Maos thoughts was essentially the concept of putting politics in command of knowledge. At the same time, revolutionary mass criticism and class struggles were actively promoted to bring into sharp relief the various contradictions in society from a more personal perspective. The principal means of linking theory and practice in the educational process were to make production labor a major part of the students curriculum and to direct research to meet local needs. These methods were based on the concept of practical training, although their implementation in China seems to have gone far beyond that prac ticed by other countries. In the rural areas, students would spend much of their time working in the fields and learning from the peasants. The training of the students included clearing marginal lands, planting and harvesting, working on the construction of water conservation projects and irrigation systems and so on. [9]Research in turn was directed towards increasing the crop yield and the mechanization of the local production units. What the specific tasks would be depended on the particular needs of a given locality. As for the urban sector, secondary and higher learning institutions were reported to have set up local factories within the schools not only to train students in practical work, but also to engage in significant production work. In other cases, factories and schools established ties with one another so as to direct the research of the latter to the needs of the former, making possible the immediate application of new findings. At the same time, veteran workers were often brought to the schoo ls to teach in certain areas and students worked at the factories for practical training. Some factories even established schools of their own, although this method seems to have more or less faded out. In brief, the educational reforms designed to attain the economic objectives basically gave the students more practical training and actual work in production than did the previous educational system. It was said that prior to the Cultural Revolution, peasants and workers had much difficulty attending schools because of such obstacles as high entrance examination standards (primarily for colleges and universities), high costs and expenses, inaccessibility since most schools were located in the cities, conflict of class schedules with local production time tables, and the lack of direct and immediate relevance of the courses offered to local production needs. As a result, educational opportunities were still not extended to many in the country living in the rural areas. During the Cultural Revolution, many of the reforms were implemented specifically to erase such barriers to education. Some of the broad guidelines for popularizing education were: 1) lowering educational standards, thus making possible the large scale recruitment of peasants and workers into the existing educational system, and especially to higher learning institutions; 2) lowering educational fees and expenses; 3) shortening the number of years for a basic education, usually from a 6-3-3 to a 5-2-2 system, while higher education was usually reduced from four or five years to two or three years (this allowed more to enter the educational system since less time would be taken off needed production work and the school population would be reduced for a given amount of students going through); 4) promoting popularly-sponsored schools-this expansion occurred mainly in the rural areas and was limited basically to the primary school level; 5) adapting curriculum and schedules to local req uirements; and 6) simplifying teaching materials.[10] Within these reform guidelines, however, schools at all levels could experiment with different ways of implementing the reforms. For example, Peking University with its more carefully selected students continued to have higher standards of education than many other colleges and universities. However, an attempt was made to lessen the gap.[11] Or with regard to popularly sponsored schools, there arose mobile schools, spare-time schools, half-work, half-study schools and so on. Furthermore, the specific curriculum of each school, except perhaps for the political education courses, varied according to the needs of the particular region. Thus, the popularization of education was carried out under a flexible and decentralized educational system. Repercussion of the Reforms While the drastic educational reform measures have given peasants opportunities to attain basic education in rural areas, as well as agricultural production and political gains, it naturally came with lasting negative impacts that promoted many post-modernists critiques. In the beginning of the Cultural Revolution, values like collaboration, diligence, modesty, and respect for elders and teachers were discarded as a result of the purge of the old Chinese cultures and traditions. Many have failed to retain the virtues during the revolution. Second, due to political struggle and line drawn between working classes and intellectuals, as well as political and violent nature of the social revolution, substantial innocent teachers and professionals were subjected to personal attacks and humiliation, some even executed. Third, specific strategies of the reformed curriculum and examination system proved to be misguided and wasted the schooling of many young people. The disconnection between a cademic achievement and students future career, the emphasis on political correctness over academic achievement, and the neglecting of theory learning and over-emphasis on hands-on experiences were all examples of poor decisions. Fourth, the Cultural Revolution both liberated students and dominated them. It liberated students and people because it opened their eyes to the inequality existing in education and society; However, it imposed political control and dominated them because it did not allow real democratic, independent and critical thinking ability.[12] As Freire (1970) put it, If teachers help students from oppressed communities to read the word but do not also teach them to read the world, students might become literate in a technical sense but will remain passive objects of history rather than active subjects.[13] Conclusion The Cultural Revolution opened peoples eyes but imposed the governments intentions on the people and dictated their thinking. Thus, people were forced to follow the governments ideology. In accordance with the three objectives set forth by the Communist Party, strategies were carried out in a decentralized manner that placed significant amount of decision making on local management. To raise political awareness, much of the curriculum were inspired by Maos thinking. His principles such as practice training were also preached to the students, which compliments well with the second objective; to integrate theory and practice while increasing agricultural production. At the time, schools and factories were tightly assimilated, as much of the students from urban areas were organized to work in rural areas, in order to experience the real China and raise consciousness on the large class segregation that existed. Lastly, with adjustments to the curriculum schedules, time commitment, academ ic and financial requirements, the barriers to entry were significantly reduced for many rural youths. Basic education was finally attainable by peasants and popularized in the rural area. However, this caused a reduction of higher education and development of specialized skilled workers in the urban area, in accordance with the focus on agricultural production rather than industrial production. The extremist nature of the reforms achieved by China was unlike what other countries could have accomplish. While political agendas and production goals were met, it came at a great cost to students that lasted through the generation. Connections to their ancestors culture and virtues were cut in favor of Maos thinking and the way of the new China. This led to activities that post-modernists could consider contradictive to the development of humanity, which was evident in the case of innocent individuals who retained the old culture or decided against Maos thinking were humiliated or executed. Students freedom of critical thinking was taken away, replaced by political correctness and over-emphasis on hand-on experiences, ultimately hindering their theoretical knowledge and future career development. Bibliography Seybolt, Peter. Editors Introduction, 1971 Huey, Alison B. The Revolutionary Committee of Peking Middle School #31, 1970 Gardner and Idema, Chinas Educational Revolution, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1973 Klepikoy, V. Z. The Fate of Public Education in China, Sovetskaia Pedagoka #8, 1968, translated by J.ÂÂ   Barry Eliot, CE 1 Peoples Daily, Chinas Educational Revolution, 1965 McCormick, Robert. Revolution in Education Committees, The China Quarterly #57, 1974 Wuyuan Rev. Comm. et al., A New Type of School That Combines. Theory with Practice, 1968 Yu-lin Special Region Rev. Comm. and Kuei-ping Rev. Comm, Train Workers to Have Socialist Consciousness and Culture, 1970, Wan, Guofang. The Educational Reforms in the Cultural Revolution in China: A Postmodern Critique, 1998. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED427419 Lankshear, C. and Mclaren, P.L. Critical Literacy, New York: State University of New York Press, 1993 Shor, I. Empowering Education, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1992. [1] Peter Seybolt, Editors Introduction, 1971, p. 4. [2] Alison B. Huey, The Revolutionary Committee of Peking Middle School #31, 1970, p. 206. [3] Seybolt, p. 4. [4] Gardner and Idema, Chinas Educational Revolution, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1973, p. 257 [5] V. Z. Klepikoy, The Fate of Public Education in China, Sovetskaia Pedagoka #8, 1968, trans, J. Barry Eliot, CE 1, p. 42. [6] Peoples Daily, Chinas Educational Revolution, 1965, p. 258. [7] Robert McCormick, Revolution in Education Committees, The China Quarterly #57,1974, p. 133. [8] Wuyuan Rev. Comm. et al., A New Type of School That Combines. Theory with Practice, 1968, p. 24-31 [9] Yu-lin Special Region Rev. Comm. and Kuei-ping Rev. Comm, Train Workers to Have Socialist Consciousness and Culture, 1970, p. 40-45 [10] Gardner and Idema, p. 279-280. [11] Ibid., p. 286. [12] Wan, Guofang. The Educational Reforms in the Cultural Revolution in China: A Postmodern Critique, 1998. [13] Lankshear, C. and Mclaren, P.L., Critical Literacy, New York: State University of New York Press., 1993

Animal Testing Controversy

Animal Testing Controversy When shopping at a store, no one ever thinks when he or she buys makeup, cleaning products, deodorant or lotion, that it has potentially hurt an innocent animal. In fact, millions of animals die every year due to a chemical drug. Those animals harmed never got a chance to live a normal, animal life; instead, they were put into cages and locked up for years at a time. While animal testing can be used to ensure the safety of certain drugs for humans, potentially killing or harming the animal being tested deems this practice wrong because it is immoral to kill or injure an innocent animal.An animal being subjected to testing is not fair; that animal did nothing wrong to deserve to be treated as an experiment. Like humans, animals are creatures living and breathing on this world too. How is it acceptable that creatures almost equal to us humans are treated like scum? Stated in the article â€Å"Controversy of Animal Testing† by Ian Murnaghan, â€Å"One key argument against animal testing involves the inability of animals to consent to the tests. Humans†¦ can make an informed decision to consent while animals have tests forced upon them, with no choice. As Murnaghan said, animals do not have the choice to decide whether they’ll be tested on or not, for they are obviously unable to speak. However, given the opportunity for an animal to have a voice, the likelihood that they’d reject the proposal of a test is highly likely. During an animal test, it may involve pain, suffering and discomfort. Although researchers try their best to minimize the pain, they aren't able to completely prevent any from happening. For the reason that an innocent animal is suffering against their free will, animal testing should be eliminated for the testing of drugs and other substances.All beings respond differently to various kinds of drugs and chemicals applied on them for testing. Since they react in so many different ways, it is very hard to conclude any results from the data they receive. As Murnaghan says in the article â€Å"Using Animals for Testing: Pros Versus Cons,† â€Å"the reaction of a drug in an animal's body is quite different from the reaction in a human. The main criticism here is that some believe animal testing is unreliable. † Like Murnaghan stated, it is almost pointless to even test animals on certain drugs and chemicals because they all have different responses to everything.For instance, morphine, which is a commonly used drug for pain relief, calms humans, whereas for cats, it excites them. Varied reactions from a drug emphasizes that humans and animals are different creatures, therefore, why test on animals expecting results related to how humans will react? That simply does not make sense. While researchers may search for drug and chemical questions through the testing of animals, the results are figured to be invalid due to the fact that our bodies are composed differentl y, thus deeming animal testing as unnecessary and wrong.Not only are animals harmed and potentially killed while being tested on, but their living conditions are inhumane and unfair. Arrays of cages are what researchers keep animals in. Small animals, like hamsters, rats and mice, are typically kept in clear or white plastic boxes about the size of a shoebox. Animals a bit bigger, such as guinea pigs, live in larger boxes about twice the size of a shoebox but more than one animal lives in a box. Larger animals like dogs, cats, and primates usually live in wire cages. Should these animals be kept in these circumstances their entire lives?Heartbreakingly, most animals stay in their cages all the time except when they are being used in experiments. What kind of life is that? On one hand, strict laws insure that the cages are warm, clean, and big enough. However, they are still kept in cages; a cage can never be as interesting, stimulating, or open as a natural habitat. On the PETA webs ite, a startling image is locked into the reader’s mind, â€Å"Imagine living inside a locked closet without any control over any aspect of your life. You can't choose when and what you eat, how you will spend your time, whether or not you will have a partner and children, or who that partner will be.You can't even decide when the lights go on and off†¦ This is life for an animal in a laboratory. It is deprivation, isolation, and misery. † In no way, shape, or form is it fair for an animal to be kept in a cage their entire life. Humans aren’t treated and put into cages for their life span, why should animals? Back to a point made in a previous paragraph, animals are living, breathing creatures on this earth too; they deserve reasonable living conditions while being put into these terrible situations.Although many people disagree in the act of animal testing, others are set in the fact that it’s beneficial to our society and movement in improving mode rn science. By testing on animals, it can find drugs and treatments to advance health and medicine for humans. In the article â€Å"Using Animals for Testing: Pros Versus Cons,† Murnaghan writes, â€Å"They see humans are superior to animal life and this belief thus justifies the use of animals in testing. While animal suffering should be minimized, they also cite that it is preferable for an animal to suffer as opposed to a human. Researchers view animals as test subjects and conclude that humans are higher in the circle of life; therefore choosing animals for testing is the best choice for society. Those doing the experiments are not motivated by cruelty towards the animal but by a powerful desire to push the boundaries of medical research and develop therapies for diseases. The fact that hurting animals is benefiting humans is the sole reason researchers and people deem the practice as right. Another reason this practice is believed right is animal testing helps to ensure the safety of drugs and many other substances humans use or are open to regularly.Drugs can carry substantial dangers with their use but animal testing lets researchers measure the safety of drugs prior to trials on humans. Thus, human lives are saved due to them not being harmed from the tests and the drugs tested. The price paid was to the harm of the animals, but with the gain of quality of life to humans, the world moves on. Even though there are some aspects of animal testing that are right and that benefit humans, a creature on this earth is still being harmed. If animals are alive and breathing just like humans, then they should be treated like them too.Animals are subjected to spend their whole lives in a lab taking the abuse of medical procedures and operations. It is wrong that animals are the ones who take this abuse, especially, like stated earlier, when they are given no alternative choice or route. If a human would have a choice in this situation, an animal should too because any life has value, and animal testing shames that. Being confined to a miserable life with numerous tests that are commonly painful is not a lifestyle that any living thing should be forced to pursue. An animal has to waste its life, well-being, and health for human benefit.These conditions are not something that any human would choose to undergo, and animals would not either, which is why animal experimentation is wrong. However, without animal testing, humans would be exposed to things that could cause harmful damage or disease. Still, there are other ways that these products and medicines can be tested other than using innocent animals. In an article in the NY times, companies state that they are taking actions in finding new ways to test, â€Å"small companies, like Entelos, supply computer simulation programs for virtual testing.Such software incorporates hundreds of variables to simulate how humans who suffer from conditions like asthma, obesity or Type 1 or 2 diabe tes will react to a new drug. † By using new forms of testing, animals are used less in the lab for experiments and more in their own environment, living normal, animal lives. Those companies finding new ways to test their products should be commended. Testing products before they are released is the safe action to do, therefore, other ways to test those products is very important in the act in saving animals from being harmed from testing.Animal testing has been taking place for hundreds of years and it’s no less immoral today than it was then. It leads to lasting damage to animals, and in many cases, death. Animal testing is wrong because they have no say in what happens to them, the bodies of animals and humans are different, therefore testing on an animal to find results for a human is unnecessary, their living conditions are horrid, and lastly, there are now other ways to perform tests for products using technology.Animal testing is unfair, immoral, and selfish for anybody to do, no matter what the purpose may be. It may be said to save lives; however, it kills more than it saves. Works Cited â€Å"Cruelty to Animals in Laboratories. †Ã‚  Peta. org. N. p. , n. d. Web. 13 Oct. 2012. . Feder, Barnaby J. â€Å"Saving the Animals: New Ways to Test Products. †Ã‚  The New York Times. The New York Times, 12 Sept. 2007. Web. 13 Oct. 2012. . Murnaghan, Ian. â€Å"Controversy of Animal Testing. †Ã‚  Controversy of Animal Testing. N. p. 14 Dec. 2010. Web. 7 Oct. 2012. . Murnaghan, Ian. â€Å"Using Animals for Testing: Pros Versus Cons. †Ã‚  Using Animals for Testing: Pros Versus Cons. N. p. , 1 July 2011. Web. 7 Oct. 2012. . Suzy Woodell October 15, 2012 Period 2 College English |B |I believe I did well on blueprint because I organized my paragraphs with | | | |TREAC, sometimes adding my own twist and writing style to it, which I | | | |think helped me get my views across better. | |C |I think I did well on content and develo ping my ideas because I analyzed | | | |my view and ideas on it well and tried my best to really get what I | | | |wanted to say on paper. | | |D |With diction, I think I truly tried my best in using a broad vocabulary, | | | |so I think I did pretty well on it because throughout my essay, I use a | | | |variety of words and articulate vocabulary without using too much of it. | | |It has the right balance. | | |E |Throughout my essay, I believe I did well with using a variety of | | | |sentence lengths, top 20 leads, and I even have a repeat key. Therefore,| | | |because of those reasons, I deserve a good grade on this because my | | | |sentences vary and useful leads are used. | | |F |I think I did alright on formalities.I have trouble with punctuation. | | | |Even when I try my hardest to fix it, I never know if it’s right. | | | |Although, I don’t think I spelled anything wrong, so that’s a plus. | | | |However, I only think I deserve an okay grade on this is because I | | | |probably have some punctuation errors that need to be fixed. | | ———————– B+ A B A B+ C+

Isolation, Restriction Digestion, And Electrophoresis Of...

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Hence, they are capable of replication independent of the chromosomal DNA in bacteria. Plasmids present in one or more copies per cell, can carry extra chromosomal DNA from one cell to another cell and serve as tools to clone and manipulate genes. Plasmids used exclusively for this purpose are known as vectors. The genes of interest can be inserted into these vector plasmids creating a recombinant plasmid. Recombinant plasmids can play a significant role in gene therapy, DNA vaccination, and drug delivery [Rapley, 2000]. We hypothesized that plasmid DNAShow MoreRelatedCreating A Genomic Library Of The Bacteria Aliivibrio Fischeri1768 Words   |  8 PagesIntroduction Within a genome, there is a vast sequence of DNA that may be studied. The resulting goal of this study is to create a genomic library of the bacteria Aliivibrio Fischeri. We will be achieving this purpose by making Escherichia Coli luminescence through the use of the lux operon. 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The E Commerce Business Model - 3554 Words

Introduction In today’s world the technology plays a vital role. All the businesses use technology in one or other way to support them. The e-commerce business model is one such technology available in the market for the companies to do their business online. The online business helps the company to achieve more profit and stand apart from the other competitors. The company uses the internet as the medium to promote their business and do the online business. In the present scenario most of the people uses internet as a tool to attain their needs. This report will discuss about the technology and business perspective to be adopted by an organization to sell fashion clothes to the end customers directly through online. The company’s name is Netfashion. Netfashion is a local fashion clothing company who sell the clothes in the local market by traditional way. They have decided to adopt the online e-commerce model to expand their business. 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